Financial regulation in United Kingdom

Financial regulation in United Kingdom Introduction What policy-maker should do to improve the system of financial regulation to achieve its objectives more effectively becomes a hot topic especially after the financial crisis 2008. More and more people begin to pay attention to financial regulation. According to a survey from FSA in 2009, the spontaneous awareness of financial regulation amongst people living in Great Britain aged 16 was 21% and it is the highest level since the survey began[1]. This essay will analyse financial regulation in United Kingdom into three perspectives; the first part will explain how the system of financial regulation operates in the United Kingdom. Then, the reasons why financial services industry should be supervised by regulation such as FSA, and new challenges in this system in response to the financial crisis 2008 will be discussed in second part, final part will be some problems with the current system in my point of view to better protect the economy and consumer. The financial regulation system in United Kingdom First of all, a brief review of the history in the late 20th century of financial regulation system in United Kingdom may be necessary and useful to establish a better background and deeper understanding. Londons financial district is known as The City for many years, until the end of 1970s there was no specific banking law in the UK, however, prompted by the secondary banking crisis in 1972, the Banking Act 1979 was promulgated and assigned formal responsibility for supervision of the UK banks (Heffernan 2007)[2]. The evolution of the UKs financial sector since the early 1980s can be thought of as the gradual confluence of three previously quite separate streams. These are the primary banking sector, monitored and supervised by the Bank of England; the organized markets in the City, and the rest of the financial sector, including building societies and insurance companies and licensed securities dealers, each of these steams exhibited significant differences in the style and nature of regulation, especially in the balance between statutory and self-regulation(Blair)[3]. As the consequence of the Stock Exchanges Big Bang, which means a series of financial reforms to encourage greater competition, the aim of Financial Services Act (1986) was to protect investors. One year after, the Bank Act 1987 was amended to the Banking Act 1979, this Act established a new Board of Bank Supervision, which assists the Bank of England in regulating other banks. The closure of BCCI (1991) and the bankruptcy of Barings (1995) exposed the problems of the supervisory abilities of the Bank of England and the drawbacks of the self-regulation (Heffernan, 2007)[4]. On 20 May 1997, the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced the reform of financial services regulation. In this resolution, banking supervision and investment services regulation were merged into the Securities and Investments Board (SIB), which changed its name to the Financial Services Authority in October 1997. Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 made the FSA became the sole regulator of all United Kingdom financial institutions. Since that time, FSA took the responsibility for all aspects of financial regulation progressively. According to the Financial Services and Markets Act, several other organisations responsibilities were transferred to the FSA, such as Building Societies Commission, Friendly Societies Commission, and Investment Management Regulatory Organisation. FSA superv ises the financial services industry as an independent non-governmental body, given statutory powers by the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000; We are a company limited by guarantee and financed by the financial services industry. The Treasury appoints the FSA Board, which currently consists of a Chairman, a Chief Executive Officer, two Managing Directors, and ten non-executive directors (including a lead non-executive member, the Deputy Chairman). This Board sets our overall policy, but day-to-day decisions and management of the staff are the responsibility of the Executive. FSA has four statutory objectives, maintaining confidence in the financial system, promoting public understanding of the financial system, securing the appropriate degree of protection for consumers; and reducing the extent to which it is possible for a business to be used for a purpose connected with financial crime (FSA, 2005)[5]. According to Heffernan (2007)[6], FSA tries to make a balance between risk and competition. RTO (risk to our objectives) approach is used widely to manage the risk in firms that supervised by the FSA (except the telecommunications and utilities sectors, etc), RTO also gives a score of probability of a certain firm to be a target for preventing the FSA from achieving its four statutory objectives. The score is easily calculated through: Impact score = (impact of the problem) * (probability of the problem arising) Each firm will be scored from A (very high risk) to D (low risk), and the score will also indicate the strength of supervision that FSA implements in a firm. Being a member of EU, UK financial regulation is influenced by EUs regulation in financial service industry, which is Financial Service Action Plan. An article named The EU Financial Services Action Plan: A Guide[7](2003), which prepared by HM Treasure, the Financial Services Authority and the Bank of England, introduced that UK financial law was effectively determined by the FSAP. It means that any UK financial regulation should not be conflict contradictory, and the UK authorities should be keen to ensure that the UK financial sector, corporate sector and consumer groups are consulted on, and fully understand the impact of, FSAP measures. European Commission uses FSAP to improve EU financial markets to be a Single Market, FSAP aims to fill gaps and eliminate remaining barriers among all EU members. Furthermore, in order to make EU financial services worked more effectively, Lamfalussy process was launched by EU Committee. It is a four-level, regulatory approach for adoption. Trying to consider the relationship between FSA and FSAP, the article also addressed that the FSA not only has extreme influence in UKs financial services, but also make its own contributions in EU, HM Treasury, the FSA and the Bank play key roles in identifying, influencing, promoting and overseeing the UKs interests in financial services in the EU. Promoting public understanding of the financial system and ensuring an appropriate degree of protection for consumers are objectives of FSA which also inform in EU. Why we need financial services industry to be regulated A brief history of UK financial regulation, which was introduced at the beginning of this article, may be a part of the whole picture. However, there are other extremely important reasons that hastened the coming of a type of financial regulation represented by FSA. At first, it is still necessary to review an important feature, which is self-regulation, in the development of the FSA. Self-regulation has proved to be an effective and reasonably efficient system for the British securities industry until very recently[8] (Rider). However, just like the historical review that illustrated above, with the upward rising of scandals and the dramatic change in security market, the foundation of the monopoly of self-regulation mechanism was challenged before the emergence of the super-regulator. Although FSA 1986 seemed that make a balance between statutory framework and self-regulation, the financial regulation system was still largely depended on self-regulation. The issue of mis-selling pensions has the most impact to make the government to make the final decision to end the self-regulation. Public confidence was significantly lost in personal pensions at that time and the truth that SIB lack adequate enforcement powers to take regulatory actions prec ipitated the process of giving financial service industry a statutory regulation system. After FSMA 2000, FSAs enforcement is safeguarded and the whole financial system in United Kingdom has leaned to be supervised in statutory way rather than self-regulated. The economic rationale for regulation will be examined as follow. According to an article, The Economic Rationale for Financial Regulation[9], written by David Llewelyn (1999), he analyses several reasons why there is a demand for a systematic regulation in economic world. Firstly, there are potential systemic risks in financial industry especially in banking industry. The main systemic risk is bank run, and worse still; this can leads to a solvent bank becoming insolvent since the limitation of most bank assets to be marketable, and due to asymmetric information problems, bank assets cannot be sold at par as potential buyers, these will add a high risk premium in the purchase price. Therefore, for the sake of depositors and banking institutions, a type for regulation on the bases of systemic risk is necessary. Secondly, market is not perfectly competitive. The main reason of market imperfection is that not all the investors can get adequate information of a certain market which they are engaging in, and this will impose costs on the consumer. Consequently, regulation plays a significant role to make sure the process of information disclosure and reinforce an effective market environment. In the article, he also explained the economies of scale in monitoring. Because of the nature of financial contracts between financial firms and their customers there is a need for continuous monitoring of the behaviour of financial firms. Regulatory agencies should monitor the financial firms in the name of consumers, since regulatory agencies are more effective and cost less in monitoring financial firms. After financial crisis 2008 Almost all of the financial regulation agency aim to maintain the stability of the financial market and consumers confidence; however, the change of real market circumstance seems faster than policy-makers precautionary measures. According to a speech, The financial crisis and the future of financial regulation[10] from Adair Turner, the Chairman of the FSA, he explained the main reason why this extreme crisis happened is the interaction between macroeconomic imbalances and the fast development in financial market which happened last ten years. In his speech, since the decline of the real risk free rates of interest, such as government bonds, credit extension was got a chance of dramatic growth especially in residential industry with deteriorated credit standards. Moreover, a desire to find a substitute for government bonds among investors who want to gain as much as possible spread above the risk-free rate was exploded. Sophisticated investment banks created a new kind of securitized credit instruments and it boomed so quickly, but unfortunately, like Lord Turner said: Not all innovation is equally useful, it collapsed since the investors became irrational. To reduce the adverse impact in economy, rebuild th e investor confidence and avoid future crisis, he pointed several strategies that regulators may concentrate on improving the regulation system. He argued that financial system should modify originate and distribute model which refer to securitized credit model easier to be understood, and more transparent to end investors. He also suggested that a new regime for capital adequacy and liquidity is necessary to lower the possibility of future crisis. In the end of his speech, he emphasized that financial regulation should always ensure that financial activities are regulated on the basis of their economic substance instead of their legal form. In the Turner Review[11] published by FSA in March 2009, there are more specific approaches about banking supervision that FSA plans to change and introduce. All the recommends can be highly summarized to be seven key measures as follow: Increasing the quantity and quality of bank capital. Significant increases in trading book capital: and the need for fundamental review. Avoiding procyclicality in Basel 2 implementation. Creating counter-cyclical capital buffers. Offsetting procyclicaality in published accounts. A gross leverage ratio backstop. Containing liquidity risks: in individual banks and at the systemic level. (FSA, 2009) After the financial crisis happened, FSA has been undertaking massive actions to improve regulation system. For example, according to FSA Annual Report 2008/09[12], the Banking Act 2009 is mainly able to resolve default problem and strengthen financial stability; as a result, a new bank insolvency procedure was introduced. A statement from FSA about Banking Act 2009 from FSA in July 2009 claimed that the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS) can not only pay compensation to eligible customers of a financial firm if that firm including deposit takers is unable, or likely to be unable, to pay claims against it but also can also be required to contribute to the costs arising from the actions taken under the SRR.[13] In addition, FSA increased the general depositor protection limit from  £35,000 to  £50,000 per person per deposit-taking institution which will cover most of retail deposits in October 2008. In the aspect of supervising firms capital adequacy, FSA made efforts to let firms which have most impact know essential controls and standards by Dear CEO letter. Closely cooperated with EU and global regulation, FSA played an important role in G20 London Summit in April 2009, which focused on the future priorities for global financial regulation, and Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. Many recommendations, which became detailed international agreements, were from FSA. According to FSA Business Plan 2009/10[14], the FSA will intensively focus on the competence of Significant Influence Functions (SIF) individuals in high-impact firms. The Plan announced five core improvements that FSA will be focus on, which included an upgraded Training and Competence (TC) scheme for relationship-management supervisors, a new tenure policy (it will provide a framework for the minimum and maximum time a supervisor should manage a firm). My view in current UKs financial supervisory system During the accumulation of the knowledge of the history about the development of UKs financial regulation and the causes of financial crisis 2008, I find it is a process that the financial regulation continuously suits the changeable financial services industry, financial regulations solutions seem behind a certain innovations in financial market which has already begun cause negative effects in the whole economy. Financial crisis 2008 is evidence to prove that if financial regulation does not detect potential problems in a certain financial innovation and does not make adjustment promptly, a new crisis would be inevitably and it would cost a lot to correct the system along the right track. Therefore, an important lesson from crisis 2008 is financial regulation should always pay close attention to the moving direction of the market and fully analyses a financial innovation. A suggestion in my point of view is that financial regulation may has legislative to investigate and estimate p otential risk within a new financial product before it begin it to sell, and this procedure may require close cooperation with related financial institution. On the other hand, financial crisis 2008 make regulators intensively focus on risk-based analysis especially in banking or like-banking institutions, but it should not equal to discourage financial innovation. Almost all the financial derivatives contain risk, while, as long as regulators estimate it appropriately, these new financial products that contained huge intelligence can benefit consumers. Conclusion Being a single financial regulator in United Kingdom, Financial Services Authority has powers which was given by Financial Services and Market Act (FSMA) to supervise Britain financial industry. Demand for such kind of regulation can be observed in history and economic perspectives. Financial crisis 2008 as a prelude to FSA reinforces its system, supervision in banking industry become more intensively. The crisis also gave regulators a lesson that it is necessary to establish a balance between surpluses and deficits on the global level in the long-term, in addition, prudential analysis should be in a more effective way in order to reduce systematic risk. Finally, not just FSA, but all the other financial regulations should cooperate closely to build a more stable global financial system and avoid future crisis. Word Count: 2564/2500 Reference: Consumer awareness of the FSA and financial regulation, Consumer Research 80, FSA, 2009 Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp.200-242 Blair et al, Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, pp. 1-16 Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp. 231-232 FSA, 2005, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/Pages/About/Who/History/index.shtml Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp. 235-237 THE EU FINANCIAL SERVICES ACTION PLAN: A GUIDE, 31 July 2003, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/other/fsap_guide.pdf Rider, Abrams and Ashe, Guide to Financial Services Regulation, pp. 1-26 The Economic Rationale for Financial Regulation, FSA Occasional Paper Series 1, April 1999, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/occpapers/OP01.pdf The financial crisis and the future of financial regulation, Speech by Adair Turner, The Economists Inaugural City Lecture, 21 January 2009 The Turner Review: A regulatory response to the global banking crisis, FSA, March 2009, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/other/turner_review.pdf FSA Annual Report 2008/09, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Corporate/Annual/ar08_09.shtml Policy Statement 09/11, Banking and compensation reform, FSA, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/policy/ps09_11.pdf FSA Business Plan 2009/10, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Corporate/Plan/bp2009.shtml Consumer awareness of the FSA and financial regulation, Consumer Research 80, FSA, 2009 Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp.200-242 Blair et al, Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, pp. 1-16 Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp. 231-232 FSA, 2005, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/Pages/About/Who/History/index.shtml Heffernan, S. (2007). Modern banking. John Wiley Sons, Ltd, pp. 235-237 THE EU FINANCIAL SERVICES ACTION PLAN: A GUIDE, 31 July 2003, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/other/fsap_guide.pdf Rider, Abrams and Ashe, Guide to Financial Services Regulation, pp. 1-26 The Economic Rationale for Financial Regulation, FSA Occasional Paper Series 1, April 1999, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/occpapers/OP01.pdf The financial crisis and the future of financial regulation, Speech by Adair Turner, The Economists Inaugural City Lecture, 21 January 2009 The Turner Review: A regulatory response to the global banking crisis, FSA, March 2009, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/other/turner_review.pdf FSA Annual Report 2008/09, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Corporate/Annual/ar08_09.shtml Policy Statement 09/11, Banking and compensation reform, FSA, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/policy/ps09_11.pdf FSA Business Plan 2009/10, http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Corporate/Plan/bp2009.shtml

Conservation of historic buildings and monuments

Conservation of historic buildings and monuments Introduction Throughout the renaissance period, preservation and restoration remained an experimental process in which many of the tools, instruments and methods were selected at random. The process was pursued with very little critical or historical understanding. This led to many architects such as Viollet-le-Duc, Sir George Gilbert Scott, John Ruskin and William Morris voicing their perceptions of how preservation and restoration should restore buildings to how they would have appeared in their prime. Most of our modern principles of conservation arose from the ideas of John Ruskin and William Morris from the mid 19th century. They stated how we are merely custodians of the buildings left form our predecessors for our future generations. They also state how our intervention in historic buildings must be kept to a minimum and how continued repair and maintenance of these historic buildings must be valued. These ideas form the basis of modern perception of preservation and restoration of our valued historic buildings and monuments. What is Conservation? Conservation is a way of planning designed to conserve historic buildings, areas and monuments in an effort to connect a places historical background to its population and primarily its culture. Conservation is means of green building, that is, reusing the existing building as oppose to new construction for a modern purpose and use. The four main styles of conservation of historic buildings are preservation, rehabilitation, reconstruction and restoration. Preservation Preservation is the means of keeping an historic building a close as possible to its original state by means of continued repair and maintenance. This focuses on the stabilization and repair of the existing materials in the building and the retention of a buildings state as it has evolved over time. Restoration Restoration of historic buildings involves reconstructing parts of the building that have fallen into decay as imitations of the highest possible quality of the original building. This form depicts a building at one stage in time and often removes any evidence of any other period in which the building existed. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation sees the need to alter or extent to an historic building to meet modern demands while still keeping the historical character of the building. Reconstruction Reconstruction re-creates vanished buildings or parts of buildings by interpretive means. Criticisms of Conservation Like many developments in urban design and planning, conservation has had its share of negative perceptions. Such aspects if this criticism include; Cost Style Mistakes made Cost implications of Conservation There are many costs associated with the preservation or restoration of an historic building. Often they need specialist workmanship which can be both time and money consuming on a construction project. Delicate elements of the building often require propping or some sort of support which can take up valuable space on site. Many of the systems in an old building need upgrading which can be difficult to install. Requirements such as energy rating and fire certificates can be hard to upgrade as often the original design of the building did not consider such modern ideas. Elements such as cavity walls or wood cladding are expensive and difficult to bring up to modern standards regarding these requirements. Structural elements of an historic building are the most endeavouring aspects of the conservation process to get right. Foundations are a recurring issue with many of the buildings as newer structures with deeper and heavier foundations can often cause uplift of the older building. Th e cost of repairing the foundations of these buildings are astronomical so diligent design of new foundations and monitoring of existing buildings is paramount during construction. All this adds up on a construction project which has undesired implicated cost for both contractor and engineer. Modern style construction Due to property price rises and limitation of space in city centres our society has constructed its buildings higher and higher to meet its purposes. This popular style of higher buildings can often cause the older, smaller historic buildings to become dwarfed and ultimately undesirable for its occupants. As the push towards increased numbers of taller sky-scrapers in urban areas is inevitable, this leaves many of the smaller older buildings redundant. Critics also say that the older historic buildings cannot accommodate as many people or businesses as newer developments can. This increases the rent on these buildings and causes low income retailers and residents to relocate. This has a negative impact on a city centre regarding retailing. Mistakes in conservation Another criticism of conservation is that it is very susceptible to mistakes being made which are ultimately to the determent of the building. Inappropriate renovations can cause damage to buildings and put it worse off than it was before. According to the Tipperary county council website some of the most common mistakes made in small scale conservation in the area are; Removal of old 18th or 19th century windows to be replaced with new PVC, plastic or aluminium windows The removal of original slate and the replacement with imitation slate or tiles The removal of the render. The website says how these changes can affect the ventilation systems in the building and can exacerbate any decaying or rotting that is taking place in the building. Removal of render and replacing it with modern Portland cement which is a lot harder can cause cracking, admit moisture and trap it within the wall. This is just an example of a few of the mistakes that can be made during the renovation process. It is clear that a great responsibility is undertaken in conducting a conservation of a building. It is the utmost importance that the right techniques and products are investigated as to preserve the building and not to amplify or created any problems with the building or monument. Sustainability of conservation Historic buildings are inherently sustainable. The correct preservation can maximise the use of the existing materials and infrastructure and in return reduces waste caused by demolition and energy put into the production of new materials and construction. Many of the old buildings were designed with sustainability in mind. Many features of historic buildings were built with aspects like climate and site situation in mind to give a sustainable build. If correctly conserved, many old buildings can serve future generations for many years to come. Conservation versus New Construction Preserving a building is often referred to as the ultimate recycling project. Although, as I have already outlined it has its many sceptics who say that historic buildings are beyond their use and require significant corrective measure to make them viable as a functioning structure. However, Green and sustainable design has become ever more popular in todays new construction and preservation industries. A major aspect to this is the reduction in carbon that conservation brings when compared with new construction. Concrete products, steel, transportation, heating and electricity are the main factors contributing to a projects overall carbon emissions. Conservation of old buildings drastically cuts down on new concrete products and their inherent transportation costs as well as the use of electricity to operate plant that is associated with new construction. Conservation versus Demolition The conservation of old buildings is a much more sensible option than demolition in relation to sustainability. There are many times when a building is deemed structurally unsound and the need for demolition is unrivalled in the interest of public safety but this should not prevent our society from conserving many of our old buildings for continued use. Conserving greatly reduces the amount of construction material being dumped in landfill. Demolition creates vast amount of crushed concrete and stone that is often unusable for construction again. Ethics and conservation I have decided to divide ethics and conservation into two sub-headings that I will discuss, they are Ethics of conservation Ethics within conservation. Ethics of conservation Preservation of historic buildings and monuments plays a vital role in the growth of our civilization. It is oftentimes easy to disregard the accomplishments of past generations as we strive to change our societies and environments to be more suited to our present needs. John Ruskin (1819-1900) was one the first to develop the conservation movement whose ideals were that a historic building, painting or sculpture is a unique creation by an artisan or artist in a specific historic context. He believed that such genuine works of art resulted from personal sacrifice and it was based on mans perception of beauty on nature, where in itself existed as a reflection of god. (Jukka Jokilehto, A History of Architectural Conservation, 1999, page175) Such ideals led to him becoming a pioneer in help organise preservation of historic buildings and monuments writing many works on the subject. His principles form the basis on conservation in todays world where we see historic buildings and monuments as a link to our past and our culture. With ongoing development of our city centres and transportation networks it would be very easy to demolish the outdated and often useless buildings and monuments that get in our way. Therefore, the question arises why dont we? Conservation is an ethical subject with the decision to neglect our revered buildings and monuments a conscientious one. As John Ruskin said many of our monasteries and churches alike are works of art in the reflection of god. It is often said that age in itself contributes to beauty. Age is a thing that is associated with wisdom and many of our historic buildings add a feeling of intellect and enlightenment to an area. Often, historic conservation of city centre can help them become more competitive with regard to retailing and business as historic, unique buildings give areas more prominence in comparison to the homogeneous skyscrapers that dominate the skylines of many of our large cities. Ethics within conservation There are many ethical values within conservation itself that regulates the nature of the industry. As one would expect it is a delicate subject whether or whether not to intervene with the natural state of a revered building or monument. Therefore, many charters and polices have been developed and implemented over the years. The first time that an international agreement was made on the principles of conservation was the Athens charter of 1931. The charter was later review and update with the Venice Charter in 1964 which relates to historic buildings, the Burra charter which deals with places of historic significance and the Washington Charter which is relates to historic towns and districts. These charters were drafted by The International Committee for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). Conservation is regarded as the work done to prevent further decay of a building and to extend its life. Conservation can often be undertaken with the greatest of enthusiasm and best intentions. However, the conservation process should be carried out so that no damage is done to the building and no falsifying or destruction of historical evidence occurs. Lack of information or the use of incorrect in inappropriate techniques can often unintentionally cause both, aesthetic and structural damage. According to (http://www.environ.ie/en/Publications/Heritage), the main principles in these charters to help prevent unintentional damage from occurring are; Retention or restoration of historical significance Conservation process based on research Minimum physical intervention Maintenance of visual setting These are the basic principles outlined in the charters which help instil ethical practice of conservation works. Case Studies In this section I will report on two case studies which I researched which will highlight mistakes made in the past, ethics in conservation and the sustainability of conservation. The leaning Tower of Pisa The leaning tower of Pisa is one of Italys most infamous land marks. It attracts hundreds of thousands of tourists every year. Construction of the tower began in 1173 after a period of prosperity in Pisa. The tower began to sway soon after the beginning of construction due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction. The tower was built in three stages over 177 years. The tower began to sink after construction was completed on the third floor. In 1272 construction was resumed with architect Giovanni di Simone deciding to build one side taller than the other to compensate for the tilt. This caused the tower to lean the other way resulting in the tower having a curved shape. The curve and 3.97o angle to the vertical at which the tower leans caused inherent damage to structural elements of the tower as well as aesthetic damage. This led to the Italian government to seek international aid to prevent the tower from collapsing on February of 1964. They did, however, declare that they desired to retain a certain degree of the towers tilt because of it tourism viability. Many attempts were made to rectify the foundations. Deformations were made in the soil through vertical anchorages and forces were applied using weights. This was one of the most simplistic solutions but also the most ineffective as it only resulted in inducing further compression on the soil. This caused extensive damage to the tower where cracking and splitting of many of the mall columns occurred. In 1993 900 tonnes of lead weights were applied to oppose the tilt of the structure. Additional provisional strengthening of the structure was applied with a series of circumferential steel cables. The final measure in the stabilization of the structure is to be a new technique called under-excavation. This technique consists in pulling out, about 5 m under the upstream border of the foundation, small amounts of soils, through a series of casings drilled into the soil. (www.sciencedirect.com). This it is hoped will gently cause the tower to tilt towards its desired inclination without disturbing the fragile columns in the structure. The leaning tower of Pisa is an example of restoration attempts where experimental methods were used with almost dire consequences for the building. However, an ethical approached was undertaken which was based on research and an effort to minimize distortion of the appearance of the building. The Parthenon Besides the pyramids at Giza, the Parthenon is one of most revered monument in the world. It was built between 447 432 BC by Greek architects Ictinus and Callicrates. The structure underwent extensive damage over an extended period time. In 296 BC gold from the statues in the building was removed by the general Lachares to pay his army. In the 5th century AD the temple was converted into a Christian church. In 1460 it housed a Turkish mosque and in 1687 gun-powder stored by the Turks inside the temple exploded and destroyed the central area. (www.archive.com). A recent major influence in the increased deterioration of the monument has been the expansion and development of nearby Athens. Urbanization has caused increased amount of carbon dioxide in the air which has contributed to more intense acid rain. This has seriously affected the monument more so in the last 30 years than in the previous eighteen centuries. In 1975 the Greek government made a special effort to try and restore the Parthenon to some of its former glory. After some delay, a committee was set up in 1983 which later received funding from the European Union to carry out its works. It was investigated that some of the earlier works were incorrect and therefore carefully dismantled and a restoration process commenced. The preservation firstly involved rectifying mistakes made by conservationists in the past. Steel beams were places within the stone structure to help support it but these were not coated in lead and inevitably rusted. The rusted beams expanded and cause the stone to crack more than it was so previously. It is impossible to restore the building to exactly how it was built first day but the aesthetics of the building were preserved by replacing any missing columns and lintels with precisely cut marble from the original quarry. The overall idea behind the conservation attempt is to replace all missing pieces of marble in the structure where they would have been preserving the structural integrity of the building by supporting these with modern materials. The preservation of the Parthenon shows a standard of ethics that Ruskin and Morris adhered to. Although there were mistakes made in the past, a willingness to restore the monument to its former glory while still keeping the style of the original building intact is the way it should be done. Preserving this monument is paramount as it has a clear link to the nation of Greece and its culture and past. Future Ideas From researching this project it is clear to see that conservation of old buildings could prove extremely beneficial to society with regard to sustainable living. With a recent push towards eco-living, conservation of some of our older building as oppose to demolishing them and erecting a new structure would be a way forward. In my opinion, future policies could incorporate full structural analysis to look for potential conservation processes before any building is demolished. This could be especially beneficial in city centres where construction of new multi-storey buildings is quite challenging. Also, regular maintenance checks of all buildings, historic or recently built, should take place on a regular basis as to provide any preservation techniques that may need be applied. This would greatly help sustain the buildings we have and reduce the need for any new construction which would have a positive impact for the environment. References Websites http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main http://www.wbdg.org/resources/sustainable http://www.environ.ie/en/Publications/Heritage/ArchitecturalHeritage/ Conservation of historic buildings by Bernard m feilden, 1982 http://www.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=912 Ioanna Venieri, archaeologist www.preservationnation.org

November Rain :: English Literature Essays

November Rain I pass a shop display and view my reflection in the glass-a well built man of thirty with a tanned complexion, dark eyes and hair. I seem to have a certain charm and grace that can-and does-go down very well with the ladies. I open the door, pull out the chair, buy the drinks and surprise them with gifts. I stay at their flats after a night out; I leave my belongings there. You could say that I’m just a bachelor with a lust for living-if I wasn’t married. I’ve been married ten years and it feels like 40. It was great at first-nights out in clubs, at parties, flirting, teasing and loving each other, or at least touching each other. We had no children to hold us down and a whole world of fun to experience. Then, it stopped. I can’t remember when, where or how. What I know is that for ten years I’ve been bound to this woman and all the practices of such a colourful marriage have been tried and are jaded; the feelings no longer evident. She is abrupt with her answers and retorts for the most part and otherwise silent, so we both have seemed to have taken our own practices elsewhere, fallen into another person’s arms and experience the same feelings anew. I walk on by, get into my shining convertible (which is now speckled with signs of yet more rain) and speed away. I step into the hall of my home in Chicago, Illinois, and into the kitchen. Rain cascades down the windowpane, such has been the case for much of Novmber. There is a plate of spaghetti Bolognese waiting right on the counter for me. I heat it up, and take it to my study, letting the aroma waft right past my nose. Turning on the stereo, I settle back in my leather, over-cushioned armchair with a long, relaxed sigh. The stereo always starts on Classic Rock radio station. Hard rock, that’s what I love best. I open the Wall Street Journal, sub-consciously listening to the music in the background. Bliss. â€Å"Blackwater shares have†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Music in background): â€Å"When I look into your eyes, I can see a love restrained, but darlin’ when I hold you, don’t you know I feel the same†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦I look up to see the source of this slightly familiar song: â€Å"November Rain† by Guns N’ Roses. â€Å"†¦both know hearts can change, and it’s hard to hold a candle in the cold November rain†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 

War and Bush Essay -- essays research papers

War and Bush   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  War has taken place all over the world. It is brutal at times even necessary, and the United States of America has seen its own share of wars. Since September 11, 2001, the President of the United States has launched a war on terrorism, and currently we are still at war. The War on Terrorism has been one of the most important battles our country has ever had and overall it has been the best for the U.S. as well as Iraq. The United States does have its motives for the war, and those purposes are what make this country as safe as it is today. Before September 11, 2001 many individuals assumed they were living in a safe country. The news showed bombings and war in different countries, but people in the U.S. were too ignorant to know such things can occur in the land of the free. When the brutal 9/11 attack occurred President George W. Bush made the proper decision of fighting back by launching a war on terrorism. This was a logical decision because most of the country felt vulnerable after the attack. Furthermore if our country did not fight back, other countries would take it into consideration that we are weak and they can take advantage of us. About 90% of polls conducted by various news stations before and the beginning of war stated the people overall supported it. (http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm) People argue now that we have been at war for a while some people are changing their minds, but not as many as the media makes it seem out to be. All the media has done for the war is damage it. The media's main desire is to make ton of money and in doing so they will try to make the Iraq war seem as pointless as Vietnam. Polls that are conducted may be rigged. One fact that can easily display that is that conservative news sources will have more people supporting the war than media that is non-conservative; this is too close to be a coincidence (www.chronwatch.com). Furthermore, many times on the news a group of kids from school will be interviewed and say how terrible of a job Bush is doing with the war. It does not make sense to interview these kids who probably do not even know why there is a war, much less looked up information from a reliable source and know what they are talking about. People who pose as experts never are experts, the only people who can give a clear aspect of the war are someone who has ... ...r country is not fighting to stop it. The plans for the war have not changed at all. Even though the name has changed to the march toward freedom it is the exact same thing as the war on terrorism. The U.S. is full of Euphemisms and the war on terrorism was changed to the march toward freedom mainly because most Americans cannot face reality. These same people who cannot face reality are the same people who are hurting the war. Whether these individuals like it or not we are at war and complaining will not do anything to benefit it. Many people argue that polls state that most of the U.S. opposes the war this obviously cannot be true because after all Bush was elected our president by a majority of the American people. In conclusion, the Iraq war is not a pointless battle that the U.S. continues to fight each day. The country has motives to fight and those will continue to be carried out despite what the media as well as anti-war individuals persist to believe. Only the people who have been in the war can give a good aspect of the war. The battle for security has only made the country feel much safer. Without the war the U.S. would not be as secure from terrorism as it is today.

Cell Injury and Cell Death

â€Å"Common biochemical themes are important to understanding cell injury and cell death regardless of the injuring agent† (Heuther & McCance, 2012). Cellular injury arises when a cell is unable to sustain homeostasis. The injury can be reversed if the cell can recover from whatever damage was done but if it does not recover the cell will die. The three common forms of cell injury are hypoxic injury, free radicals and reactive oxygen species injury, and chemical injury.The most common form of cell injury is hypoxic injury, or hypoxia, the deficiency of adequate oxygen. Ischemia is the most common cause of tissue hypoxia and is caused from a decrease in blood flow. Hypoxia can also be caused by a reduced amount of oxygen in the air, loss of hemoglobin, diseases of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and decreased production of red blood cells. Cardiac ischemia is one of the most recognizable forms of hypoxic injury and is caused by a blockage in the coronary arteries o f the heart.Once the blood flow to heart tissue decreases or stops completely, the heart tissue is damaged and can lead to further complications including a myocardial infarction. Another form of cell injury is free radicals and reactive oxygen species. â€Å"An important mechanism of cellular injury is injury induced by free radicals, especially by reactive oxygen species (ROS); this form of injury is called oxidative stress† (Heuther and McCance, 2012). Free radicals are produced by cells and are crucial to normal cellular metabolism.Free radicals can form damaging chemical bonds with lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The most commonly defined free radicals are the reactive oxygen species (ROS) which contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction and are linked to many human diseases and the aging process. According to a holistic physician, Dr. Jill Marjama-Lyons, â€Å"oxidative stress is one of the leading theories as to what might cause dopamine cell death in Parkinson†™s disease† (2003). Chemical injury is the final form of cell injury.â€Å"About 4 billion pounds of toxic chemicals are released per year in the United States. Of these, approximately 72 million pounds are known carcinogens† (Heuther and McCance, 2012). We are frequently exposed to xenobiotics, a variety of compounds that include toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic chemicals. â€Å"These chemicals can react with cellular macromolecules, such and proteins and DNA, or can react directly with cell structures to cause cell damage† (Heuther and McCance, 2012).Tissue damage caused by xenobiotics can lead to organ and systemic toxicity,  mutations, and cancer. Lead , a heavy metal found in the environment, is a chemical highly toxic to children. The exposure primarily effects the nervous system, the hematopoietic system, and the kidneys. Lead exposure can result in learning disorders, hyperactivity, and attention problems if exposure is too high. Cell injury occurs when a cell is unable to sustain homeostasis. Maintaining homeostasis within the body is vital to prevent serious complications and death. Cell injury forms include hypoxic injury, chemical injury and oxidative stress.Hypoxia is the insufficiency of oxygen, without oxygen the body cannot keep its tissue healthy and that can lead to tissue death and organ system failure. Unfortunately, due to the 4 billion pounds of toxic chemicals released into the environment each year, chemical injury is common and hard to avoid. Chemicals can be found the air, the food we eat and the water we drink. Exposure and a reaction to the exposure depends on an individual’s health. Cell injury can be reversed but it must happen quickly to prevent lasting complications or cell death.

Material Balances for Carbon

Many of the earth's natural processes are cyclic. The circulation of water between oceans, atmosphere and continents is a familiar example. Another is the transformation and movement of carbon-containing compounds for which the immediately obvious elements are the photosynthetic generation by plants of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and the consumption of carbohydrates by herbivores who regenerate carbon dioxide through respiration. (As we shall see shortly, the complete carbon cycle involves a number of additional processes.)Such cycles are termed â€Å"biogeochemical cycles. † The term is most commonly used to refer to global cycles of the â€Å"life elements† C, O, N, S, and P, but its use is extended as well to regional cycles and to other elements or components. The study of biogeochemical cycles then is the study of the transformation and transport of substances in the Earth's systems. In most cases the cycles link biotic (living) subsystems to abiotic (non-liv ing) ones. Of particular current interest is the effect of human-caused disturbances on the natural cycles.A major disturbance in the carbon cycle, for example, is the continuous injection of carbon (mainly as carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. How much of this injected carbon ends up in the atmosphere? How much in the oceans? . . . in the land vegetation? What effect does the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have on the global climate? Insights to the answers to these and related questions can be gained through the use of mathematical models constructed by applying material and energy balance principles.Here the carbon cycle serves as an illustrative example, though much of the discussion is couched in terms that apply generally. The objective is to develop a simple mathematical model that will demonstrate the use of material and energy balances for studying the Earth’s natural processes. A schematic representation The transport o f substances in biogeochemical systems is commonly depicted graphically by means of flowsheets or flowcharts, which are composed of boxes (or compartments, or reservoirs) connected by arrow-directed lines.As such, the depiction resembles the flowsheet for a chemical plant or process where boxes represent various 1  units (reactors, heat exchangers, etc. ) and the lines represent material flows. Indeed the analogy extends to methods of analysis, as we shall see in later sections, based on material and/or energy balances. Flowcharts for biogeochemical systems differ from those generally used for chemical processes in that a single chart for the former usually is used to track the flow of just one substance (ordinarily an element such as carbon) — but it need not be so. The number of boxes in a schematic representation is indicative of the level of detail to which an analysis will be subjected or for which information (data) is available.The least detailed for global carbon, f or example, consists of only three compartments — for land, oceans and atmosphere — of the type shown in Figure 1. Commonly in such representations, the amounts, or inventory, of the substance of interest (represented by M's in Figure 1) in each compartment have units of mass or moles. The exchange rates or flows (usually termed â€Å"fluxes† in the ecosystem literature, represented by F's in Figure 1) have units of mass or moles per unit of time. Figure 1. Three-compartment representation of a biogeochemical cycle.M's  represent the inventory (mass or moles), and F's are flows or fluxes (mass or moles per unit time). atmosphere, Ma Foa Fao oceans, Mo Fta Fat land, Mt (terrestrial system) A quantitative description would give numerical values of the inventories and fluxes — or better yet, would give expressions for the F's in terms of the M's. Figure 2 presents a similar flowchart with a slightly higher level of detail. This representation recognizes th at there may be a significant difference between concentrations near the ocean surface and those in the deeper ocean layers.We will use this representation later for studying a model of the carbon cycle. 2 atmosphere, Ma Fsa Figure 2. Four-compartment representation of a biogeochemical cycle. Fas surface ocean layer, Ms Fds Fta Fat land, Mt (terrestrial system) Fsd deep ocean layers, Md A further level of detail might add boxes to represent land and ocean biota, but we will not add that complexity for our purposes here. Mathematical models Mathematical models of biogeochemical cycles can take on various forms depending on the level of detail sought or necessary and/or on the type of supporting or verifying information or data available.In general, models attempt to relate the rates of transport, transformation and input of substances to their masses and changes by way of equations based on material and/or energy conservation principles. The description in the preceding section sugge sts so-called â€Å"lumped† models; that is, models in which the spatial position is not a continuous variable. Indeed it may not even appear in the model equations. It is, in fact, considered to be piecewise constant. Thus the vertical position in the ocean was separated into two parts, surface layer and deep layers.For such lumped models, the mathematical description is in the form of ordinary differential equations for the unsteady states and of algebraic or transcendental equations for the steady state. So-called â€Å"distributed† models, which consider the spatial position to be a continuous variable, lead to partial differential equations for the unsteady and ordinary differential equations for the steady state. By far the most common models employed for biogeochemical cycles are of the lumped variety, and the remainder of this module will be devoted to them. One should think of lumped models as representing overall (perhaps 3 global) averages.With sufficient de tail (large number of boxes) they may be useful for accurate quantitative purposes; with little detail, they may be used to obtain rough estimates, to study qualitative trends, and to gain insights into the effects of changes. Lumped models are sometimes referred to as â€Å"black box† models — so called because they consider only the inputs and outputs of the boxes and their interior masses. They do not explore the interior details of the boxes — such as the predator-prey interactions that influence the population dynamics within the biota, or the complex ocean chemistry that affects the air-ocean exchange of material.In the same way, most flowsheet representations and calculations for chemical plants treat process units as black boxes. Material and energy balances relate known and unknown stream quantities. The detail within a box, such as the tray-to-tray compositions and temperatures of a distillation column are not directly involved in the usual flowsheet c alculation, but obviously are involved in determining the output streams, or in relating them to other streams, at a finer level of detail Calculations for a model of the carbon cycleHere we will use a schematic diagram similar to that in Figure 2 to construct a mathematical model for the carbon cycle. Our purpose is to estimate the effect of fossil fuel burning on the level of carbon in the atmosphere — important information for the assessment of the greenhouse effect. Figure 2 is reconstructed below to include the input of carbon from fossil fuels. atmosphere, Ma Fsa Figure 3. A simplified representation of the carbon cycle, including an input from fossil fuel burning. Fas surface ocean layer, Ms Fds Fat land, Mt (terrestrial system) Fsd deep ocean layers, Md  4 Fta Ff fossil fuelsThe following equations relate the flow rates (fluxes) in the diagram to the masses of carbon in the boxes in the form employed in references [1] and [2]. The numerical values of the coefficient s were derived from data presented in those references. Ffa is an input disturbance, yet to be specified. In these equations, the masses (the M’s) are in units of petagrams, and the fluxes (the F’s) are in units of petagrams per year. (One petagram is 15 10 grams. ) Fas = (0. 143) Ma (1) Fsa = (10 ( 2) ?25 )M 9. 0 s Fat = (16. 2) Ma0. 2 (3) Fta = (0. 0200 ) Mt ( 4)  Fds = (0. 00129) Md (5) Fsd = ( 0. 450) Ms ( 6)Notice that Equations 2 and 3 are nonlinear relationships between fluxes and masses. To appreciate the reason for this, say in Equation 2, bear in mind that the fluxes and masses are measures of the element C, which actually exists in various compound forms, with equilibrium likely established among them, in the ocean waters. Yet it is only carbon dioxide that enters the atmosphere from the ocean layers in any appreciable quantity. Therefore, the relationship between carbon dioxide and the total carbon in the ocean layers is complicated.The nonlinear relation ship in Equation 3 is explained by the fact that this rate of transfer, nearly all in the form of carbon dioxide, is governed mainly by the rate of photosynthesis by plants — a rate usually not limited by carbon dioxide supply from the air but rather by the photochemical and biochemical reactions at play. Material balances Material balances on carbon (i. e. , atomic balances) may be written for each of the boxes in Figure 3. As an example, with the information in Equations 1-6 incorporated, the unsteady balance on the â€Å"atmosphere† box is given by 5 dMa 0. 2  = (10 ?25 ) Ms9. 0 + (0. 0200) Mt ? (0. 143) Ma ? (16. 2 ) Ma + Ff dt ( 7)Similar balances must be added for the other three compartments, and initial values for the four M’s must be given to complete the mathematical model. The input from fossil fuel consumption, the disturbance function Ff, may be a constant or a function of time. Its current value is about 5 petagrams of carbon per year. Over some periods of time its value increased at the rate of about 4% per year. Inasmuch as the Earth’s total reservoir of fossil fuels is estimated to be 10,000 petagrams, of which only half may be  recoverable for use, the current use rate, much less any significant increase, is not sustainable indefinitely.However, in the much shorter run, the concern is not about the availability of fossil fuels, but about how their use may be affecting the global climate. Steady states . The steady-state model is derived simply by setting the time derivatives in the transient equations to zero. Further, we can deduce from physical considerations that no steady state is possible unless Ff is zero. (Notice that the steadystate equations are nonlinear in the M's owing to the exponents on Ms and Ma.Consequently, a numerical search procedure must be used to obtain solutions to Problem 1 below. ) Problem 1 Incorporating the information in Equations 1-6, write the steady-state carbon balance for each o f the four â€Å"boxes† in Figure 3, taking Ff to be zero. Can you solve these equations for the numerical values of the four M’s? (Note that the equations are not linearly independent; one is redundant. ) (a) Take the total M (i. e. , the sum of the four M’s) to be 39,700 petagrams (the actual current estimate of the total carbon in the four compartments) and solve for the M’s.Note that your solution would be the ultimate steady-state distribution of carbon if the usage of fossil fuels were discontinued now — that is if Ff were immediately decreased from 5 petagrams per year to zero. (b) Instead of assuming an immediate reduction in Ff to zero, suppose that the usage of fossil fuels is reduced gradually in such manner that the carbon entering the atmosphere from this source decreases linearly with 6 time from 5 petagrams per year to zero over the next 100 years.Calculate the total amount (in petagrams) of carbon released by fossil fuel use over th at 100-year period, and determine the new set of M's at steady state. What fraction of the added carbon will ultimately (steadily) reside in the atmosphere? Unsteady (Transient) States. While information about steady states is of interest and importance, the more relevant questions can only be answered by examining the transient or unsteady state. How long does it take to approach a steady state? What levels of carbon are reached in the atmosphere along the way to an eventual steady state?What is the effect of increasing or decreasing the rate of consumption of fossil fuels? Consider the first question. According to the numerical values given above for fluxes and reservoir levels of carbon, the effective time constants for the reservoirs vary from a few years for the atmosphere to hundreds or thousands of years for the deep ocean layers. Therefore, a large input into the atmosphere may eventually decay to only a modest permanent (steady-state) increase owing to the fact that the lar ge capacity of the oceans will eventually absorb most of it — but the effects on the atmosphere may be felt for a century or more.The point was made above that the steady-state equations, being nonlinear, cannot be solved analytically. The same is true for the unsteady state. Therefore, the following problem requires a numerical procedure for solving the system of nonlinear ordinary differential equations. Problem 2 . Equation 7 gives the material balance for carbon in the atmosphere. Complete the mathematical description of the unsteady state by writing similar balances on the remaining three compartments shown in Figure 3.Take the initial (current) levels of carbon in the four reservoirs to be 700, 3000, 1000, 35000 for the atmosphere, terrestrial, surface ocean, and deep ocean reservoirs, respectively — all in petagrams. (a) Assuming that the carbon input from fossil fuel use remains constant at its present level of 5 petagrams per year, generate a numerical solutio n giving the amount of carbon in each reservoir versus time over a 100-year period. (Show your results in graphical form. ) (b) As in part (b) of Problem 1, let Ff decrease linearly with time from 5 petagrams per year to zero over 100 years.Again generate solutions and present curves showing the 7 reservoir levels of carbon versus time up to 100 years. What fraction of the total carbon entering the atmosphere from fossil fuel use is present in the atmosphere at the end of the 100-year period? Compare that fraction to your answer for part (b) of Problem 1. Comments? A Glance at the Global Warming Problem You might ask why should we be concerned about changes in atmospheric carbon levels. After all, the levels are very low. Further, we should expect some natural level of CO2 in the atmosphere owing simply to that generated by the respiration of plants and animals.In fact, that natural level is estimated to be about 280 ppmv — a pre-industrial level that probably existed steadil y for centuries before the industrial revolution. The answer to such questions is not simple, but the major concern nowadays is the possible upsetting of the Earth's energy balance leading to an increase in the average global temperature. We will not attempt an exhaustive treatment of this subject here, but since it connects directly to the preceding discussion of the carbon cycle, it warrants a quick glance at least. The following equation gives the simplest form of the Earth's energy balance.S(1 ? f ) r = 2 4 2 T (4 r ) (8) where S is the solar constant — i. e. , the amount of incident solar radiation per unit projected area of the Earth, f is the albedo or reflectivity of the Earth, r is the Earth's radius ? is the effective emissivity of the Earth for infrared radiation to outer space, ? is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant T is the absolute temperature — indicative of the global average temperature. The radius, r, cancels from Equation 8. The following list gives valu es for the other quantities in Equation 8. 2 S = 1367 watts/m f = 0. 31 ? = 0. 615 -8 2 4 ? = 5.5597 x 10 watts/(m oK ) 8Equation 8 is a steady-state balance equating the solar energy reaching the Earth's surface (on the left side) to the energy lost by infrared radiation to outer space (on the right side). Atmospheric gases affect the reflectivity, f, and the effective emissivity, ?. In particular, so-called greenhouse gases decrease ? by absorbing, or â€Å"trapping†, some of the infrared radiation, thereby reducing the amount of energy that can escape from the Earth. If all other factors are constant, a lower value of ? will result in a higher value of T from Equation 8.Other factors come into the picture, however, and lead to uncertainty about the extent of global warming that may occur due to increases in CO2 and other greenhouse gases. For example, an increase in the average temperature would probably lead to an increase in aerosols and cloudiness, which will act to inc rease f and offset the effect of a decrease in ?. We probably error on the pessimistic side (i. e. , predicting a temperature change that is too large) if we assume, as we shall here, that an increasing CO2 level works only to decrease ?. The following equation gives a reasonable estimate for that variation. = 0. 642- (8.  45 x 10-5) pco 2 (9) where pCO2 is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in parts per million by volume (ppmv).Problem 3 For this problem you will need to calculate the concentration of CO2 in ppmv from the total mass of atmospheric carbon. For that calculation, take 18 the total mass of the atmosphere to be 5. 25 x 10 kg. In all cases use the initial values for the M's given in Problem 2. (a) Using your result from Problem 1(b) along with Equations 8 and 9, calculate the predicted eventual increase in the global temperature attributable to the carbon added to the atmosphere over a 100-year period.(b) Repeat Problems 2(a) and 2(b), this time incl uding a graph of the global temperature change versus years as predicted from Equations 8 and 9. Comment about the resulting temperature following from Problem 2(b) vis-a`-vis that following from Problem 1(b). 9 Problem solutions Solutions to the three problems presented in these notes are available to course instructors as Mathcad (Macintosh) files or as copies of those files in pdf format. Copies may be obtained by e-mail request to schmitz. [email  protected] edu.

Smu Mb0044 Sem 2 2013 Solved

Q1. State the important considerations for locating an automobile plant. A1. Automobile plant automated flaw lines, automatedassembly lines, flexible manufacturing systems, global transition rapid prototyping. Building manufacturing flexibility things are necessity. About the automated flow lines we can say it is a machine which is linked by a transfer system which moves the parts by using handling machines which are also automated, we have an automated flow line. Human intervention ma is needed to verify that the operations ate taking place according to standards.When these cab be achieved with the help of automation and the processes are conducted with self regulation, we will have automated flow lines established. In fixed automation or hard automation, where one component is manufactured using services operations and machines it is possible to achieve this condition. We assume that product life cycles are sufficiently stable to interest heavily on the automate flow lines to achie ve reduces cast per unit. Product layouts ate designed so that the assembly tasks are performed in the sequence they are designed at each station continuously.The finished item came out at the end of the line. In automated assembly lines the moving pallets move the materials from station to station and moving arms pick up parts, place them at specified place and system them by perusing, riveting, & crewing or even welding. Sensors will keep track of there activities and move the assembles to the next stage. The machines are arranged in a sequence to perform operations according to the technical requirements. The tools are loaded, movements are effected, speeds controlled automatically without the need for worker’s involvement.The flexibility leads to better utilization of the equipments. It reduces thenumbers of systems and rids in reduction of investment as well as a space needed to install them. One of the major cancers of modern manufacturing systems is to be able to respo nd to market Demands which have uncertainties. Prototyping is a process by which a new product is developed in small number so as to determine the suitability of the materials, study the various methods of manufactured, type of machinery required and develop techniques to over come problems that my be encountered when full scale manufacture is undertaken.Prototypes do meet the specification of the component that enters a product and performance can be measured on these. It helps in con be reforming the design and any shortcomings can be rectified at low cost. Flexibility has three dimensions in the manufacturing field. They are variety, volume and time. There demands will have to be satisfied. In that sense they become constraints which restrict the maximization of productivity. Every business will have to meet the market demands of its various products in variety volumes of different time.Flexibility is also needed to be able to develop new products or make improvements in the prod ucts fast enough to cater to shifting marker needs. Manufacturing systems have flexibility built into them to enable organization meet global demand. You have understood how the latest trends in manufacturing when implemented help firms to stay a head in business Q2. Explain essentials of Project Management Philosophy A1. Project Management Philosophy A project never goes smooth. It brings unexpected problems during the execution of any phase that marks a difference between the planned activities and actual executions.The deviations enforce re-planning of further activities so that the extra budget and time spent on previous activities can be compensated by revised project plan. A loser is a loser only when he realizes it and gives up. As long as one thinks he has the capability of changing lose situation to a winning situation, he is never a loser. Project management philosophy emphasizes on sharing the problems with all stakeholders and team members so that different brains come o ut with different responses and any of the response(s) can become the best solution(s).Challenge sharing definitely brings out a solution from somebody else having a different set of experience and exposure who has already been into such a situation and has come out of it already. Sharing problems and challenges saves one from re-inventing the wheel. Documentation sharing and a knowledge sharing platform make a strong basis for keeping all on the same wheel. Managers mostly focus on driving out results from the teams rather than enabling and empowering them to become self driven. Energy flows automatically and uncontrolled. Results start coming out without reaching the deadlines and prior to demand.It depends on managers that by empowerment they start preparing or building leaders within the teams. A combination of leaders, if synergized properly, propels a resultant progress of the project. Managers become critical key in engaging people in the project. A high level of engagement i s lodged in the team members via project manager. As long as the project manager is able to drive teams, it makes them engaged to the project. On the other hand if project manager inculcates and inspires team members to self-engage themselves, the team members do not depend to be driven by project manager.Q3. Several different strategies have been employed to assist in aggregate planning. Explain these in brief A3. Planning is a primary management responsibility. Aggregate planning is concerned with organizing the quantity and timing of production over a medium period of time up to eight to ten months with undetermined demand. Specifically aggregate planning means combining all of an organization`s resources into one aggregate production schedule for a predetermined intermediate time period. The objective of aggregate planning is to maximize esources while minimizing cost over the planning period. The aggregate production plan is midway between short-range planning and long-range pl anning. Aggregate planning includes the following factors: 1. Work force size and composition 2. Demand forecasts and orders 3. Raw material planning 4. Plant capacity management 5. Utilizing outside subcontractors 6. Inventory management Aggregate planning is the link between short-term scheduling and long-term capacity planning. What are aggregate planning strategies? There are three types of aggregate planning strategies: Pure Strategy.In this strategy, only one production or supply factor is changed. Mixed Strategy. This strategy simultaneously alters two or more production or supply factors or some combination. Level Scheduling. This strategy has been adopted by the Japanese and it embodies maintaining constant monthly production schedules. What aggregate planning strategies influence demand? Aggregate planning can influence demand in the following ways: 1. Pricing strategies. Pricing can be used to increase or reduce demand. All things being equal, increasing prices reduces de mand while lowering prices will increase demand. . Advertising and promotion strategies. Advertising and promotion are pure demand management strategies in that they can increase demand by making a product or service better known as well as positioning it for a particular market segment. 3. Delayed deliveries or reserving orders. Managing future delivery schedules is a strategy for managing orders when demand exceeds capacity. The net effect of delayed deliveries, or back ordering, and reservations is to shift demand to a later period of time, often to a more slack period, which provides a smoothing effect for overall demand.However, the negative is that a percentage of orders will be lost as consumers are unwilling or unable to wait the additional amount of time. 4. Diversifying the product mix. Product mix diversification is a method used to offset demand seasonality. For example, a lawn mower manufacturing company may diversify into snow removal equipment to offset the seasonalit y of the lawn mower industry. What aggregate planning strategies influence supply? Aggregate planning is also used to manage supply considerations by using the following strategies: 1.Subcontracting (outsourcing). Subcontracting is a method of increasing capacity without incurring large capital investment charges. It can turn the competitive advantage of other corporations to the contracting organization`s advantage. However, subcontracting can be costly, and also reveals part of the business to potential competitors. 2. Overtime and idle time. A direct short-term strategy for managing production capacity is to either increase or decrease the number of the work force. This strategy has the advantage of utilizing the currently existing work force.However, overtime is expensive and can produce job burnout if relied upon too extensively. On the other hand, enforcing idle time on the work force can result in resistance as well as a drop in morale. 3. Hiring and laying off employees. Hir ing and laying off employees is a medium- to long-term strategy for increasing or decreasing capacity. Hiring employees usually involves the cost of training while laying off employees can incur severance charges. Laying off employees can also cause labor difficulties with unions and reduce morale 4. Stockpiling inventory.Accumulating inventory is a strategy for smoothing variances which may occur between demand and supply. 5. Part-time employees. Certain industries have seasonal requirements for lower skilled employees. Aggregate planning can be used to manage these seasonal requirements. What is the charting method of aggregate planning? Charting is a highly utilized trial-and-error aggregate planning method. It is relatively simple to use and is easily understood. Essentially, the charting approach uses a few variables in forecasting demand, applying current production capacity.While the charting method does not assure an accurate prediction, it is simple to implement requiring o nly minimal calculations. But trial and error method does not provide an optimal solution. The charting method requires five steps to implement: 1. Calculate each period`s demand. 2. Calculate each period`s production capacity for regular time, overtime, and subcontracting. 3. Determine all labor costs including costs for hiring and layoffs as well as the cost of holding inventory. 4. Evaluate organizational employee and stock policies. . Create optional policies and evaluate their costs. EXAMPLE 1. 30 A Florida men`s suit manufacturer has created expected demand forecasts for the period June-January, as shown in Table 1. 2. The daily demand is calculated by dividing the total expected demand by the number of monthly working days: AVERAGE DEMAND = TOTAL EXPECTED DEMAND / NUMBER OF PRODUCTION DAYS FIGURE 1. 6 MONTHLY AND AVERAGE MEN`S SUIT DEMAND The graph in Figure 1. 6 illustrates that there is a substantial variance between the monthly and average men`s suit demand.What are the co sts of aggregate planning? Aggregate planning is a systems methodology having major organizational impacts. Every strategy has associated costs and benefits. Increasing hiring means increasing training costs and incurring associated employment benefit costs. Increasing inventory increases carrying costs consisting of capital and storage costs, deterioration, and obsolescence. Using part-time employees involves the costs and risks of using improperly trained and inexperienced personnel as well as creating possible union conflicts.Using subcontractors has the cost of exposing an organization to potential competitors. EXAMPLE 1. 31 Using the data in example 1. 30, it is possible to develop cost estimates for the men`s suit manufacturer. Basically, the manufacturer has three choices: 1. The manufacturer can meet expected monthly production fluctuations by varying the work force size, hiring and laying off employees as needed. In this scenario, an assumption is made that the men`s suit m anufacturer has a constant staff of 55 employees. 2.Another alternative is to maintain a constant work force of 51 employees and subcontract for additional expected demand. 3. A third alternative is to maintain a work force of 69 employees and store suits during the slack demand months. Organizational Costs THREE PLAN SUMMARY COSTS In this example, the best production plan is plan 3 which maintains a work force of 69 employees and stores men`s suit inventory during low demand months. Q 5: Explain the basic competitive priorities considered while formulating operationsstrategy by a firm? Answer:Operations strategy reflects the long-term goals of an organisation in its corporate strategy,a clear understanding of the operating advantages and a good cross functional coordinationbetween functional areas of marketing, production, finance, and human resources departments arerequired. Operating advantages depend on its processes and competitive priorities considered whileestablishing the ca pabilities. The basic competitive priorities are: Cost, Quality, Time, Flexibility Cost: Cost is one of the primary considerations while marketing a product or a service.Being a lowcost producer, the product accepted by the customer offers sustainability and can outperformcompetitors. Lower price and better quality of a product will ensure higher demand and higherprofitability. To estimate the actual cost of production, the operations manager must addresslabour, materials, scrap generations, overhead and other initial costof design and development, etc. Quality: Quality is defined by the customer. The operations manager looks into two importantaspects namely high performance design and consistent quality.High performance design includessuperior features, greater durability, convenience to services, etc where as consistent designmeasures the frequency with which the product meets its design specifications and performs best. Time: Faster delivery time, on-time delivery, and speedy dev elopment cycle are the time factors thatoperations strategy looks into. Faster delivery time is the time lapsed between the customer orderand the delivery. On-time delivery is the frequency with which the product is delivered on time.Thedevelopment speed is the elapsed time from the idea generation up to the final design andproduction of products. Flexibility: Flexibility is the ability to provide a wide variety of products, and it measures how fast themanufacturer can convert its process line used for one product to produce another product afterWhile customisation is the ability of the firm to satisfy the specific needs of each its customer, thevolume flexibility is the ability to accelerate or decelerate the rate of production to handle thefluctuations in demand. For example, the production of fertilisers of different specifications andapplications.